From Medieval Mobility to Migration Diplomacy: The History of Migration between Morocco and Spain, 711–2026
Part I — Historical Foundations
Cross-Mediterranean Mobility, Colonialism, and the Postcolonial Relationship
Situated at the intersection of Europe and Africa, the Middle East, and the Atlantic world, the Strait of Gibraltar constitutes the centre of these linkages; on a good day one can see the Spanish coast from Tangier and vice-versa. The history of migration between Morocco and Spain reflects the changing political, economic, and social relationships between the two shores of the Strait of Gibraltar. For centuries, this geographical passage connected populations through conquest, commerce, religious exchange, displacement, and labor mobility. However, the meaning and regulation of migration changed substantially as political authorities, territorial boundaries, and legal systems evolved. De Haas says; “migration seems to be the result of development rather than the lack of development.” Understanding contemporary migration diplomacy therefore requires a historical approach that distinguishes medieval mobility from colonial population movements and modern international migration.
This article argues that Moroccan–Spanish migration relations developed through three major transformations: the establishment of historical connections across the Strait of Gibraltar, the reorganization of mobility under colonial rule, and the emergence of formal migration agreements within a postcolonial and increasingly Europeanized diplomatic framework. By examining these transformations, the article explains how migration became both a practical policy concern and an important dimension of bilateral relations. Developed within the framework of activities organized in collaboration between the Legal Clinic of Migration at University Mohammed I, Oujda, and the High Atlas Foundation, this study seeks to connect historical perspectives on mobility with contemporary legal and developmental frameworks.
1. Medieval mobility and historical connections, 711–1767
The conquest of much of the Iberian Peninsula by forces crossing from North Africa in 711 initiated a prolonged period of political, cultural, and demographic interaction between the Maghreb and al-Andalus. Movement across the Strait of Gibraltar involved military expeditions, settlement, trade, scholarship, and diplomatic exchange. These connections contributed to the formation of networks that linked cities and communities on both sides of the Mediterranean.
The expansion of Christian kingdoms in Iberia subsequently transformed these relationships. The fall of Granada in 1492, the expulsion of Jewish communities from Spain that year, and the expulsion of the Moriscos between 1609 and 1614 generated significant population movements toward North Africa. Moroccan cities, particularly Tetouan and Chefchaouen, became associated with Andalusian settlement and the preservation of cultural and commercial traditions originating in Iberia.
These movements are relevant to migration history because they demonstrate the longstanding relationship between political change and population displacement. Nevertheless, they should not be equated with contemporary migration. Medieval political authorities did not operate within the modern international system of national citizenship, immigration legislation, and internationally standardized border controls. The period is therefore best understood as the historical background to later migration relations rather than as the beginning of a continuous modern migration regime.
2. Treaty diplomacy and colonial expansion, 1767–1956
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, relations between Morocco and Spain increasingly developed through formal diplomatic agreements concerning commerce, maritime relations, security, and territorial interests. The Treaty of Peace and Commerce signed on 28 May 1767 represents an important documentary starting point for examining this diplomatic relationship. The original Spanish-Arabic document is preserved in Spain's Archivo Histórico Nacional under reference ESTADO, 3372, Exp.11.
Figure 1: The Treaty of Wad Ras as portrayed by Joaquin Dominguez Becquer.
The treaty should not be described as a modern migration agreement. Its historical importance lies in its contribution to the formal regulation of relations between the two states. Subsequent conflicts and agreements, particularly the Spanish-Moroccan War of 1859–1860 and the Treaty of Wad Ras of 1860, further transformed the relationship amid expanding European imperial competition.
A decisive institutional change occurred in 1912, when Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorate zones. The Spanish Protectorate created administrative structures through which colonial authorities exercised political, military, and economic influence over northern Morocco. These structures affected labor recruitment, residence, military service, and movement between metropolitan Spain and the Protectorate.
Figure 2 : Moment of the signing of the Treaty by which the Spanish Protectorate was created, 27 November, 1912.
Colonial mobility, however, must be interpreted within its specific legal context. The Spanish zone was not legally identical to metropolitan Spain, and the movement of Moroccan workers, soldiers, officials, and merchants cannot automatically be classified according to contemporary immigration categories. Colonial rule nevertheless established territorial and administrative arrangements whose historical consequences persisted after Moroccan independence.
Morocco regained independence in 1956, fundamentally changing the legal basis of its relationship with Spain. Migration relations now developed between two formally sovereign states, although territorial disputes, colonial memories, and economic inequalities continued to influence bilateral diplomacy.
3. Independence and the emergence of modern migration relations, 1956–1985
Following independence, Moroccan migration developed within wider European labor markets. France remained a particularly important destination for Moroccan workers, while other Western European countries also attracted migrants. Spain's transformation from a country of substantial emigration into an increasingly important destination for foreign workers occurred gradually.
During this period, Moroccan–Spanish relations were influenced by consular affairs, labor mobility, economic change, and unresolved territorial questions involving Ceuta and Melilla. These issues would become increasingly significant as Spain integrated into European institutions and migration became more closely associated with border security and immigration legislation.
The postcolonial period therefore established the political conditions for the institutionalization of migration cooperation. Unlike earlier forms of mobility governed primarily through commercial, colonial, or local arrangements, contemporary migration increasingly required formal procedures addressing admission, employment, residence, and return.
Part II — The Institutionalization of Migration Diplomacy
Bilateral Agreements, Europeanization, and Contemporary Cooperation, 1986–2026
4. European integration and the regulation of migration, 1986–2000
Figure 3: Signing of the Accession Treaty of Spain (1985) / Photo: European Commission
Spain's accession to the European Communities in 1986 transformed the institutional context of its relationship with Morocco. European integration, the development of the Schengen framework, and the introduction of visa requirements for Moroccan nationals around 1991 progressively changed the conditions governing entry into Spain. Migration became increasingly connected to external border management, immigration legislation, and cooperation with countries outside the European Community.
The 1992 Spanish-Moroccan readmission agreement represents a major turning point. Signed on 13 February 1992, the agreement established procedures for readmission and transit, alongside mechanisms for cooperation between the two countries' authorities. Its preamble refers to “los lazos históricos que unen a los dos pueblos” (“the historical ties that unite the two peoples”), linking migration cooperation to the broader bilateral relationship.
The agreement addressed the readmission of third-country nationals who had entered one state's territory illegally from the other state's territory, subject to the conditions established in the text. It also provided for transit arrangements, administrative cooperation, and a joint committee to address implementation issues. Article 13 referred to cooperation in organizing migration flows while always guaranteeing the social rights of the workers concerned.
The agreement must be understood within its precise legal chronology. Although it was provisionally applied from the date of signature, its formal entry into force was recorded on 21 October 2012. This distinction raises important questions about the relationship between provisional application, diplomatic negotiations, and formal legal effectiveness.
The agreement illustrates the emergence of a more institutionalized approach to migration diplomacy. It established procedures for cooperation, but its existence did not eliminate questions concerning implementation, migrants' rights, or the relationship between bilateral arrangements and European law.
5. Labor migration and the 2001 agreement
The development of migration diplomacy extended beyond readmission. On 25 July 2001, Spain and Morocco signed an agreement on manpower intended to regulate labor mobility between the two countries. Its preamble expressed the parties desire to regulate labor flows in an orderly and coordinated manner.
The agreement established procedures for recruitment, selection, employment contracts, and the participation of the competent authorities. It also addressed seasonal employment and the conditions under which workers could return to Morocco following their employment in Spain.
This framework reveals an important dimension of the bilateral relationship: the simultaneous regulation of irregular migration and facilitation of authorized labor mobility. Whereas the 1992 agreement primarily addressed readmission, transit, and border cooperation, the 2001 agreement provided a framework for organized employment.